Mining, Ethics and Sustainability

Mining, Ethics and Sustainability

Author: Janelle Scialla, Principal of Earthworks School for the Healing Arts
October 2019

Unless collected from the surface through rock hunting or similar, most of our crystals will be extracted from the Earth. Mining always has an impact on the environment, and in some cases, working conditions are less than ideal.

This is not a comfortable subject, but one we need to consider. Presumably, those of us who work with crystals want to help and serve others. This goodwill should extend to the planet that is gifting us these lovely tools and the workers who extract them.

Mining Techniques

Before looking at the problems generated by mining, we first need to have an understanding of the nature and mechanism of mining. Mining techniques vary considerably, depending on the mineral or gemstone and type of deposit.

Industrial Mining

Industrial mining is large-scale, used primarily for the extraction of coal or metals and metal ores. Coal and iron are usually taken through open caste strip mining, which removes vast quantities of soil with huge earth-moving vehicles. The hole left resembles an inverted cone.

In the case of metal ores, all material is pulverised, then smelted to extract metals and other useful elements. Industrial mining is highly destructive, and no crystals or mineral specimens survive the process.

Crystal Mining

Crystal mining should not be confused with industrial mining. It is comparatively rare, and always done on a small scale. Crystal and mineral specimens are very delicate and would be destroyed by the industrial mining techniques currently in practice.

Instead, they are harvested by a few people, often in family groups, who carefully remove the specimens by hand. Colombian quartz, for example, is extracted by retired emerald miners from old emerald mines that are no longer productive. The miners work for themselves and retain the profits from what they sell. In other places, such as Namibia, locals enter disused mines to take a few crystals to sell to tourists.

Gemstone Mining

Mining for precious gemstones, such as ruby, sapphire and emerald, differs from much of the mining that produces other crystals and minerals. Most gemstone deposits are discovered by accident.

There are two main types of deposit, usually referred to as primary and secondary.

Primary deposits are located in the original host rock. The crystals are generally in good condition, but in most cases the yield will be relatively small, with many tons of “deaf” rock Open Iron Mine (non-gem bearing rock) having to be removed in the search for gemstones. Crystals from primary deposits are removed with hand tools, pneumatic (compressed air) tools, or by blasting.

Secondary deposits (also known as alluvial deposits) occur when gemstones have been transported from their place of formation, and deposited elsewhere via river, sea, coastal erosion, or even wind. The crystals are usually more rounded, and smaller, than those from primary deposits, but occur in greater concentrations.

If a secondary deposit is beneath a surface layer (known as a placer deposit), either this layer is removed, or a shaft is built downwards. With minimal bracing, these shafts can be up to 10m deep.

As far as the environmental impact of gemstone mining is concerned, only diamond mining is done on a truly industrial scale and employs open pit as well as deep hole methods. This is because of the way diamonds form and, therefore, where they are found. Diamonds are believed to form in specific areas of the Earth’s upper mantle where there is adequate heat and pressure (at least 90 mi / 150 km below the surface). Pieces of diamond-bearing mantle are torn out and delivered to the surface by rare, deepsource volcanic eruptions – an ancient type of eruption which has not occurred for millions of years. The magma is propelled upwards at high velocity, then slows and solidifies as it nears the surface, forming a volcanic pipe of kimberlite or lamproite. The easiest way to extract the diamonds from the volcanic pipe is to strip it away from the surface down.

Mining and the Environment

Let’s face it: all mining is destructive and dangerous to some extent. Since much current mining takes place in ‘Third World’ countries, it raises the issues of sustainable practice and the ethical treatment of workers, both of which are difficult to monitor.

Generally speaking, the small-scale mining described above has minimal environmental impact. However, most types of mining involve issues such as destruction of landscapes and agricultural and forest lands, sedimentation and erosion, soil contamination and surface and groundwater pollution, air pollution, and waste management. Larger scale mining can be extremely destructive, and in the case of metal ore creates a great deal of pollution as well as using a large amount of fossil fuels in the smelting process.

The Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI), a global standard for good governance of oil, gas and mineral resources, was launched by the then Prime Minister of the UK Tony Blair at the 2003 World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg. Since that time, it has had a favourable impact on industry standards, with 52 countries currently signed up. Regulations include rules to prevent contamination of ground water and subterranean aquifers, both during the period of mining activity, and later when the mine is no longer in use. There are also regulations in place to ensure erosion is kept to a minimum; often this will also involve replacing previously existing flora or turning the area into a pleasant recreational site. Before a mine is opened, the company involved is Expected to present an environmental impact assessment.

This is good news for the environment in general. However, the effects of large-scale industrial mining and the poor mining practices of the past are continuing to take their toll, and in spite of recent improvements, most mining, of any sort, will have a negative impact on the environment.

EITI standards are mainly applied to large-scale industrial mining, rather than small-scale crystal extraction.

Abandoned Mines

One of the largest pollution problems from mining is that of abandoned mines. Up until this century, mining wasn’t globally regulated; miners and mining companies were not held responsible for restoring the mine site to its prior state, or preventing and containing contamination, either during the mining process or after the mine’s closure. If a disused mine is not sealed, it will fill with water, and if iron pyrite is present, it will readily break down. Iron pyrite is a sulphide and will release iron into ground water, creating a reddish-brown suspension, as well as sulphur in the form of sulphuric acid – which in turn breaks down other metals within the mine. The water finally emerging from the mine may be acidic and laden with metals such as copper, zinc and cadmium. Metal salts may also enter the water, making it saline. Treatment facilities are now usually installed at working mines to combat these potential problems, but abandoned mines are often left to continue damaging the surrounding area.

Unregulated Mining

Another problem occurs when mining is not regulated as it should be. The large gold mines in Brazil, such as in the state of Minas Gerais, use deep shaft industrial mining, and adhere to regulations. However, much of the gold mining in Brazil is done by entrepreneurs working deep in the Brazilian Amazon. Furthermore, this mining has been encouraged by the government, which chooses to turn a blind eye when regulatory practice is not strictly adhered to. This has some impact in terms of deforestation, although not as large as one would expect. The main issues, however, are that the techniques employed involve the use of mercury to extract the gold, and that considerable water turbulence is created when separating the gold from the surrounding rock. Depending on the methods used, mercury can enter the water table, poisoning both local wildlife and the human inhabitants of the
area. One of the areas worst affected is the Yanomami Indigenous Territory along Brazil’s northern border with Venezuela, where thousands of gold prospectors work illegally. Yanomami people living near the operations show disturbingly high levels of mercury, according to a 2016 study by the Oswald Cruz Foundation (a scientific research institution promoting public health). Furthermore, turbidity in the river can destroy the fish population, in turn affecting other animal and human life.

The real evil here is not just greed – it’s poverty. Trying to find a way out of the poverty cycle, people prospect on unclaimed or protected land without the knowledge or equipment to work in a safe, sustainable way.

This is the current case with much of the mining in Madagascar, including some areas where rose quartz is mined. Minerals are sold to local dealers, so there is no way of knowing the exact source. Sapphire miners dig deep shaft mines, sometimes even excavating beneath the floors of their homes to hide their prospecting from the authorities. If they don’t shore up the holes properly, they can be prone to collapse.

Elsewhere in Madagascar, indiscriminate and unregulated mining has led to environmental destruction. People swarmed onto protected land when sapphires were discovered there, destroying the habitat, cutting down trees, and leaving the hills full of holes. There is no landowner or mine owner responsible for the destruction. These are people living in extreme poverty who have simply seized the opportunity to try to better their lives. As with Brazil, the government turns a blind eye to these practices because they receive revenue from the exports.

Ethics and Sustainability

I acquired most of my childhood crystal collection in the 1960s through rock hunting. Other crystals and minerals were obtained from local rock shops around New Mexico. These were usually run by enthusiasts who sourced their specimens from local abandoned mines. Other minerals in the shops were from around the region – Arizona and Mexico for the most part – with a few imported from further afield.

When crystal healing became part of the New Age movement in the 1980s, crystal shops started popping up all over the place. This created a larger market, and crystals were commonly imported from around the world.

Since the turn of the 21st century, crystal therapy has become more mainstream, and crystals have risen in popularity through the health and wellbeing industry. As someone who has witnessed the benefit of working with crystals for many years, I see this as a positive development; conversely, however, there has also been a negative impact from greater global demand and the resulting industry. This is exacerbated by demand from emerging markets such as China, where minerals are valued for decorative purposes and often intricately carved. Some minerals, such as sugilite, are becoming difficult to source in the West because of the huge demand in the East.

Mining in developing countries also poses the potential issue of child labour, and poor adherence to health and safety regulations.

In Europe, most importers buy from dealers, not directly from the mines, so won’t always know the working conditions of the miners. Some importers claim to import Fair Trade minerals, but this designation usually refers to the working conditions of the people fashioning stones in factories.

Reputable suppliers work directly with the producers and will know (or can reasonably assess) most aspects of the minerals’ source, extraction, conversion and supply. Where possible, they will have longterm commitments in place with producers, thereby contributing to improving and safeguarding the working conditions of employees as well as stabilising the local economy. When advertising or packaging their products, they will include the country of origin, and where possible, the actual mine. It’s far easier to look into the sustainability of mining practice when we know the origin of our minerals. For all of these reasons, crystals will often be more expensive from trusted suppliers.

My main supplier works directly with his sources and has done so for many years. I also buy from a few dealers who in turn buy directly from the mines and sell on to importers. One of them actually enters the mines and sends back photos. This gives me reasonable confidence that no one is being exploited for the minerals in my shop and personal collection.

Conclusion

As a practitioner, I would hate to think the extraction of the very minerals I’m using to help others might be harming the planet or other people at the same time.

At the time of writing, a number of articles have appeared in newspapers and magazines in both the US and UK, criticising the wellness industry with respect to the high demand for crystals and lack of Fair Trade certification. What these articles fail to mention is that by far the most destructive mining is for gold, iron, and diamonds, yet all of us own items made of iron, and there are very few of us who don’t own some gold and/or diamond jewellery. Some of the most unethical treatment of miners occurs in the mining of rare elements, such as indium, used as indium tin oxide in touchscreens – and yet the demand for smartphones and tablets is much higher than that for crystals.

This does not mean we should ignore or excuse bad mining practice where crystals are concerned, but it’s notable that journalists have been focussing on the relatively small industry of crystal mining while barely touching on gold or indium mining.

If you care about how your crystals and minerals are mined and manufactured, I strongly recommend paying the extra to buy from a reputable dealer or shop, rather than putting trust in the flood of ultracheap crystals appearing online from unknown sources.

I also believe we should avoid a knee-jerk reaction. It’s arrogant of us in the wealthy West to believe we know what’s best for everyone else. Even when conditions are not good, prospecting and mining may still represent the only source of income for local people. I don’t condone child labour under any circumstances, but in some places it’s considered normal. In countries like Madagascar, a 14-year-old helping his father in the mine (as cited in one article) wouldn’t seem that different to a child of the same age helping out with the harvest (although, admittedly, it is probably more dangerous).

Often the situation will eventually rectify itself. For example, concern was raised a few years ago regarding exploitation of workers in China, including crystal carvers. The highlighted issues revolved around fair pay, and health and safety. As China becomes wealthier, workers are more able to demand better working conditions and higher pay. As a result, the cost of crystals – particularly fashioned crystals – has gone up. Personally, I don’t mind paying extra if I know the people mining and carving the crystals are being fairly treated.

On another note, I’m often asked what happens when the crystals run out.

As a species, we humans ravage the Earth, stripping her natural resources with little thought for the next generation, much less the other creatures who share this planet with us. However, there is one thing in the Earth’s favour – the geological process is constant. Crystals will continue to form beneath the Earth’s surface long after we are gone.

© Janelle Scialla
October 2019